Table 5 Information on articles that have examined the consequences of stigma in people living with bipolar disorders and their families
From: Stigma in people living with bipolar disorder and their families: a systematic review
| Â | Author, Year | Location of study | Study type | Sampling method | Sample size | Tools | Finding |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Iran | Qualitative Method (content analysis) | Purposive sampling | 20 family members of bipolar patients 4 bipolar patients 3 mental health professional | Qualitative interviews | Social deprivation, emotional and sentimental excitement, objective and behavioral reflections, family solidarity threat, and separation from society were as the most important consequences of stigma in the family of bipolar patients | |
2 | Kumar et al., 2020 | India | Cross-sectional study | Random sampling | 100 patients (50 patients with schizophrenia and 50 patients with bipolar disorder) | Quality of Life scale (WHO) | One of the most important consequences of stigma was disease relapse, facilitated by factors such as witnessing unfair behaviors by family members, the community, or the workplace |
3 | Quenneville et al., 2020 | Switzerland | Comparative study | Available sampling | 244 French-speaking patients (39 patients had a diagnosis of BPD, 136 had ADHD and 69 had BD) | The Brief Illness Perception Questionnaire | An increasing score of internal stigma influences quality of life and job performance in people living with bipolar disorders |
4 | Bhattacharyy a et al., 2019 | India | Cross-sectional study | Available sampling | 62 bipolar patients | Mental Illness (ISMI) scale Rosenberg Self‑esteem Rating Scale (RSES) World Health Organization (WHO) QOL‑BREF | Stigma causes people living with bipolar disorders to experience low self-esteem and a poor quality of life |
5 | Au et al., 2019 | China | Cross-sectional study | Random sampling | 115 bipolar patients with | Self-Stigma of Mental Illness Scale (C-SSMIS) Functional Assessment Short Test (FAST) Stigma Coping Orientation Scale (SCOS) | People living with bipolar disorders employ strategies such as avoiding others and social isolation to deal with stigma. Decreased self-esteem is the last phase in self-stigmatization and the most important phase in determining psychosocial performance |
6 | Post et al. 2018 | Austria | Comparative study | Purposive sampling | 60 outpatients with bipolar I disorder and 77 healthy subjects from the general community | Views on Manic Depression Questionnaire | Quality of life was significantly associated with resilience, internal stigma, and residual symptoms in people living with bipolar disorders. Even during recovery, people living with bipolar disorders experience a much poorer quality of life and lower resilience compared with healthy individuals |
7 | Grover et al. 2016 | India | Cross-sectional study | Purposive sampling | 185 bipolar patients | Bipolar Recovery Questionnaire | People living with bipolar disorders, internal stigma was seen in 28%, the experience of discrimination in 38.9%, experienced stigma after hiding from others in 28.6%, and social isolation in 28.6% of the patients. Regarding participation, about two-fifths of the patients revealed minimal activities. Finally, high levels of stigma were directly related to reduce mean life expectancy |
8 | Noack, Kirsten et al., 2016 | Canada | Qualitative Method | Purposive sampling | 29 bipolar patients | Qualitative interviews Rosenberg Self-esteem Rating Scale(RSES) | Stigma significantly decreases the participation of people living with bipolar disorders in society, making it difficult for them to acquire credible information about the disease, even via online resources |
9 | Sadighi et al., 2015 | Iran | Cross-sectional study | Available sampling | 126 bipolar patients | The Burden Assessment Schedule (BAS) | Stigma in people living with bipolar disorder has remarkable effects on the quality of life of these people and reduces their psychosocial performance and self-esteem |
10 | Karidi et al., 2015 | Greece | Cross-sectional study | Random sampling | 120 patients with schizophrenia and BD | Internalized Stigma of Mental Illness scale | Stigma itself led to social deprivation and poor performance in individuals, and the fact that psychiatric disorders have a direct and profound effect on self-stigma |
11 | Mileva et al. 2013 | Canada | Cross-sectional study | Random sampling | 392 bipolar patients (178 people from Argentina and 214 people from Canada) | Stigmatizing Experiences (ISE) Stigma Experiences Scale (SES) Stigma Impact Scale (SIS) | More than 50% of respondents believed that stigma had affected their life quality and reduced their self-esteem. For a better understanding of stigma in people living with bipolar disorders and their families, we must first know how they experience the phenomenon, and ISE is a valuable and reliable tool allowing us to reach this goal with high certainty in different cultures |
12 | Michalak et al., 2011 | Canada | Qualitative Method | Purposive sampling | 32 bipolar patients | Qualitative interviews Arts-based method (graphic recording) | Internal stigma could significantly affect self-management by people living with bipolar disorders. A reduction in self-management following internal stigma in these patients leads them to constantly regain their lost identities and roles in society |
13 | Vázquez et al. 2011 | Three Latin American countries (Argentina, Brazil, and Colombia) | Cross-sectional study | Random sampling | 241 bipolar patients (Argentina = 96, Brazil = 60, Colombia = 85) | Day’s Mental Illness Stigma Scale | A high perceived stigma score was directly and significantly correlated with a low-performance score |
14 | Brohan et al., 2011 | 13 European countries | Cross-sectional study | Available sampling | 1182 people with bipolar disorder or depression | The Internalized Stigma of Mental Illness Scale (ISMI) The Boston University Empowerment Scale (BUES) The Perceived Devaluation and Discrimination Scale (PDD) | 21.7%, 59.7%, and 71.6% of people living with bipolar disorders experienced self-stigma, resistance to stigma, and discrimination, respectively |
15 | Perlick et al. 2007 | UK | Cross-sectional study | Random sampling | Caregivers of 500 people with bipolar disorder | Standardised Affective Disorder Evaluation Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview The Clinical Monitoring Form | Caregivers' perceptions of stigma may negatively affect their mental health by reducing their coping effectiveness |
16 | Perlick et al. 2001 | UK | Cross-sectional study | Available sampling | 264 people with bipolar disorder | Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia, Lifetime Version (SADS-L) The Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS) The Social Adjustment Scale (SAS) | Concerns about the stigma associated with mental illness reported by patients during an acute phase of bipolar illness caused poorer social adjustment seven months later with individuals outside the patient's family |